Conspiracy, Accomplice and Pinkerton Liability: Where does criminal responsibility end? A study on the U.S. Criminal Liability System
Keywords:
Common law, Conspiracy, Accomplice, Liability, Pinkerton
Abstract
The conspiracy is a preparatory crime that allows the punishment of people who agree to commit a crime, even if they never carry out their plan or if they are apprehended before reaching their goal. The crime of conspiracy must be clearly distinguished from the category ‘accomplice’. This inchoate crime fulfils a series of diverse functions that are satisfied by other legal devices in continental legal systems. The membership in a conspiracy creates a standard for keeping each conspirator accomplice in the crimes committed by the other conspirators. The only restriction on this accomplice test is that the crime be committed in furtherance of the criminal aim of the conspiracy. This responsibility is further amplified by the Pinkerton liability. The overlap between these approaches creates a very difficult web to unravel. Therefore, in this research, we will analyse the conspiracy and its relationship with other systems of responsibility (accomplice, Pinkerton liability) according to the conceptual arsenal provided by the common law, the main objective will be its analysis and criticism of the North American criminal system itself.
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References
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Clarkson, C. M. V., Keating, H. M., Cunningham, S. R. (2007). Clarkson and Keating Criminal Law: Text and Materials, 6ª edición, London: Sweet & Maxwell.
Doyle, C. (2020). Accomplices, Aiding and Abetting, and the Like: An Overview of 18 U.S.C. § 2, Congressional Research Service, pp. 1-11. Recuperado de: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43769
Fletcher, G. (2000). Rethinking Criminal Law, New York: Oxford University Press.
Fletcher, G. (1998). Basic Concepts of Criminal Law, New York-Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Frisch, W. (1996). Straftat und Straftatsystem, en Wolter, J., Freund G. (Eds.) Straftat, Strafzumessung und Strafprozeß im gesamten Strafrechtssystem: Straftatbegriff - Straftatzurechnung - Strafrechtszweck - Strafausschluß - Strafverzicht - Strafklagverzicht, Heidelberg: C.F. Müller Verlag, pp. 135-210.
Jefferson, M. (2013). Criminal Law, 11ª edición, London: Pearson.
Johnson, P. E. (1973). The Unnecessary Crime of Conspiracy. California Law Review, Vol. 61, No. 5 (Sep., 1973), pp. 1137-1188. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3479790
Katyal, N. K. (1961). Conspiracy Theory. The Yale Law Review, Vol. 112, pp. 1307-139. Recuperado de: https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4808&context=ylj
Kaufmann, A. (1985). Das Übernationale und Überpositive in der Strafrechtswissenschaft, en Jescheck, H-H. et al. (Eds). Gedächtnisschrift für Zong Uk Tjong, Tokio: Seibundo, pp. 100-111.
Kurt, A. (2008). Vicarious Liability and the Constitutional Dimensions of Pinkerton. American University Law Review, vol. 57, pp. 585-639. Recuperado de: http://pgil.pk/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Vicarious-Libility-by-kreit.pdf
LaFave, W. R. (2010). Criminal Law, 5ª edición, Eagan, Minnesota: West Publishing.
LaFave, W. R., Scott, A. W. Jr. (1972). Handbook on Criminal Law, Eagan, Minnesota: West Publishing.
Manning A. (2006). A Common Law Crime Analysis of Pinkerton v. United States: Sixty Years of Impermissible Judicially-Created Criminal Liability, Montana Law Review, Vol. 67, pp. 89-119. Recuperado de https://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2338&context=mlr
Maljevic, A. (2011). “Participation in a Criminal Organization” and “Conspiracy”. Different Legal Model Against Criminal Collectives, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.
Model Penal Code Commentaries. (1985). Part 1, General Provisions, Sec. 30.1-5.07 I, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute.
Marcus, P. (1992). Criminal Conspiracy Law: Time to Turn Back from an Ever Expanding, Ever More Troubling Area, William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, Vol. 1, pp. 1-45. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1549&context=wmborj
Marcus, P. (1977). “Conspiracy: The Criminal Agreement, in Theory and in Practice”. The Georgetown Law Journal, vol 65, pp. 925-969. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/558
May, J. (1983). Pinkerton v. United States Revisited: A Defense of Accomplice Liability. Nova Law Review, Vol. 8, pp. 21-42. Recuperado de: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1833&context=nlr
Ohlin, J. D. (2007). Group Think: The Law of Conspiracy and Collective Reason. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 98, No. 1, pp. 147-206. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/facpub/437
Ohlin, J. D. (2007b). Three Conceptual Problems with the Doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterprise, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 5, pp. 69-90. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mql1044
Perkins, R. M. (1941). Parties to Crime Author(s). University of Pennsylvania Law Reviewand American Law Register, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 581-623. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9136&context=penn_law_review
Posner, R. A. (1985). An Economic Theory of Criminal Law. Columbia Law Review, Vol. 85, No. 6, pp. 1193-1231. Recuperado de: https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2827&context=journal_articles
Recent Decisions (1947). Criminal Law - Conspiracy and Substantive Offenses-Distinctions Between Conspirators and Accomplices-Conviction of Conspirators for Substantive Offenses, Although He Did Not Actually Participate in Them, FordhamLaw Review, Vol. 16, pp. 275-282. Recuperado de: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol16/iss2/6
Robinson P., Dubber, M. (2007). The American Model Penal Code: A Brief Overview. New Criminal LawReview , Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 319-341. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2007.10.3.319
Robinson P. (1997). Structure and Function in Criminal Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Robinson P. (1984). Imputed Criminal Liability. Yale Law Journal, Vol. 93, pp. 609-676. Recuperado de: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2500452
Sayre, F. B. (Sr.) (1932). Mens Rea. HarvardLaw Review, Vol. 45, No. 6, pp. 974-1026. Recuperado de: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1332142
Sayre, F. B. (Sr.) (1930). Criminal Responsibility for the Acts of Another. Harvard Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 689-723. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1330727
Schuessler, T. (1983). Liability for Coconspirator 's Crimes in the Wisconsin Party to a Crime Statute. Marquette Law Review, vol. 66, pp. 345-368. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1972&context=mulr
Sayre, F. B. (Sr.) (1922). Criminal Conspiracy. Harvard Law Review, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 393-427. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1328648
Schünemann, B. (1984). Einführung in das strafrechtliche Systemdenken. Schünemann, B., et al. (Eds.), Grundfragen des modernen Strafrechtssystems, Berlin-New York: De Gruyter, pp. 1-68.
Turner, J. W. C. (1936). The Mental Element in Crimes at Common Law. The Cambridge Law Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 31-66. Recuperado de: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4502876
Welzel H. (1964). Vom Bleibenden und vom Vergänglichen in der Strafrechtswissenschaft, Marburg a. d. Lahn: Elwert.
Weschler, H. (1962). On Culpability and Crime: The Treatment of Mens Rea in the Model Penal Code. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 339, pp. 24-41. Recuperado de: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1034317?seq=1
Willson, W. (2017). Criminal Law, 5a edición, Harlow: Pearson.
Yale L. J. (1947). Vicarious Liability for Criminal Offenses of Co-Conspirators. The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 56, No. 2 (Jan., 1947), pp. 371-378.
Sentencias Judiciales
Sentencias de tribunales norteamericanos
American Tabacco Co. v. United States, 328 U.S. 781 (1946).https://www.jstor.org/stable/1034317?seq=1
Bates v. United States, 323 U.S. 15 (1944).
Blumenthal v. United States, 332 U.S. 539 (1947).
Bollenbach v. United States, 326 U.S. 607 (1946).
Braverman v. United States, 317 U.S. 49 (1942).
Callanan v. United States, 364 U.S. 587 (1961).
Garland v. State, 112 Md. 83, 75. A. 631 (1910).
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, (2006).
Hyde & Schneider v. United States, 225 U.S. 347 (1912).
Krulewitch v. United States, 336 U.S. 440 (1949).
Morrisey v. State, 620 A.2d 207 (Del. 1993
People v. Gem Hang, 131 Cal.App.2d 69 (1955).
People v. Hines, 29 N.E.2d 483 (N.Y. 1940).
People v. McGee, 49 N.Y.2d 48 (1979).
Pinkerton v. United States, 328 U.S. 640 (1946).
Poliafico v. United States, 237 F.2d 97, 116 (6th Cir. 1956).
Sneed v. United States, 298 Fed. 911 (C.C.A. 5th, 1924)
State v. Miller, 677 P.2d 1129 (Utah 1984).
State v. Nevarez, 142 Idaho 616 (App.2005).
State v. Powel, 83 S.E. 310 (N.C. 1914).
State v. Stein, 94 Wash.App. 616 (1999).
State v. Stewart, 663, N.W.2d. 281 (Minn. 2002).
State v. Thibodeau, 353 A.2d 595 (Me.1976).
State v. Williams, 916 A.2d 294 (Md. 2007).
State ex rel. Woods v. Cohen, 173 Ariz. 497 (1992).
Thompson v. State, 106. Ala. 67, 17 So. 512 (1895).
United States v. Álvarez, 755 F.2d 830 (11th Cir.1985).
United States v. Britton, 10S U.S. 199, 204 (1883).
United States v. Castaneda, 9 F.3d 761 (9th Cir.1993).
United States v. Frazier, 880 F.2d 878 (6th Cir. 1989).
United States v. Gonzales, 121 F.3d 928 (5th Cir. 1997).
United States v. Hernandez-Orellana, 539 F.3d 994 (9th Cir. 2008).
United States v. Martinez, 900 F.3d 721 (5th Cir. 2018).
United States v. Ibarra-Zelaya, 465 F.3d 596 (5th Cir. 2006).
United States v. Raffone, 693 F2d 1343, 1346 (11th Cir. 1982).
United States v. Rosado-Fernandez, 614 F.2d 50, 53 (5th Cir. 1980).
United States v. Sail, 116 F. (2d) 745 (C. C. A. 3d, 1940).
United States v. Sall, 116 F.2d 745, (3d Cir. 1940).
United States v. Superior Growers Supply, 982 F.2d 173 (6th Cir. 1992).
United States v. Wilner, 523 F.2d 68 (2d Cir. 1975).
Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298 (1957).
State v. Williams, 397 Md. 172, 916 A .2d 294 (Md. 2007).
Sentencias de tribunales ingleses
Regina v. John Eagleton 169 Eng. Rep. 826 (Crim. App. 1855).
Regina v. Saunders, 2 Plowd 473 (1573).
Regina v. Tolson, 23 Q.B.D. 168 (1889).
Rex v. Huggins. King’s Bench 92 Eng. Rep. 518 (1730).
Sentencias de tribunales internacionales
Prosecutor v. Stakic, (IT-97-24-A, Sentencia de Apelaciones del TPIY, 22/03/2002).
Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, (IT-94-1-A, Sentencia de Apelaciones del ICTY, 15/07/1999).
Amenge Okoth, J. R. (2014). The Crime of Conspiracy in International Criminal Law, Heidelberg: Springer.
Blackstone, W. (1753). Commentaries on the Laws of England in Four Books, vol. 2, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1893.
Clarkson, C. M. V., Keating, H. M., Cunningham, S. R. (2007). Clarkson and Keating Criminal Law: Text and Materials, 6ª edición, London: Sweet & Maxwell.
Doyle, C. (2020). Accomplices, Aiding and Abetting, and the Like: An Overview of 18 U.S.C. § 2, Congressional Research Service, pp. 1-11. Recuperado de: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43769
Fletcher, G. (2000). Rethinking Criminal Law, New York: Oxford University Press.
Fletcher, G. (1998). Basic Concepts of Criminal Law, New York-Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Frisch, W. (1996). Straftat und Straftatsystem, en Wolter, J., Freund G. (Eds.) Straftat, Strafzumessung und Strafprozeß im gesamten Strafrechtssystem: Straftatbegriff - Straftatzurechnung - Strafrechtszweck - Strafausschluß - Strafverzicht - Strafklagverzicht, Heidelberg: C.F. Müller Verlag, pp. 135-210.
Jefferson, M. (2013). Criminal Law, 11ª edición, London: Pearson.
Johnson, P. E. (1973). The Unnecessary Crime of Conspiracy. California Law Review, Vol. 61, No. 5 (Sep., 1973), pp. 1137-1188. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3479790
Katyal, N. K. (1961). Conspiracy Theory. The Yale Law Review, Vol. 112, pp. 1307-139. Recuperado de: https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4808&context=ylj
Kaufmann, A. (1985). Das Übernationale und Überpositive in der Strafrechtswissenschaft, en Jescheck, H-H. et al. (Eds). Gedächtnisschrift für Zong Uk Tjong, Tokio: Seibundo, pp. 100-111.
Kurt, A. (2008). Vicarious Liability and the Constitutional Dimensions of Pinkerton. American University Law Review, vol. 57, pp. 585-639. Recuperado de: http://pgil.pk/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Vicarious-Libility-by-kreit.pdf
LaFave, W. R. (2010). Criminal Law, 5ª edición, Eagan, Minnesota: West Publishing.
LaFave, W. R., Scott, A. W. Jr. (1972). Handbook on Criminal Law, Eagan, Minnesota: West Publishing.
Manning A. (2006). A Common Law Crime Analysis of Pinkerton v. United States: Sixty Years of Impermissible Judicially-Created Criminal Liability, Montana Law Review, Vol. 67, pp. 89-119. Recuperado de https://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2338&context=mlr
Maljevic, A. (2011). “Participation in a Criminal Organization” and “Conspiracy”. Different Legal Model Against Criminal Collectives, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.
Model Penal Code Commentaries. (1985). Part 1, General Provisions, Sec. 30.1-5.07 I, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute.
Marcus, P. (1992). Criminal Conspiracy Law: Time to Turn Back from an Ever Expanding, Ever More Troubling Area, William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, Vol. 1, pp. 1-45. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1549&context=wmborj
Marcus, P. (1977). “Conspiracy: The Criminal Agreement, in Theory and in Practice”. The Georgetown Law Journal, vol 65, pp. 925-969. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/558
May, J. (1983). Pinkerton v. United States Revisited: A Defense of Accomplice Liability. Nova Law Review, Vol. 8, pp. 21-42. Recuperado de: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1833&context=nlr
Ohlin, J. D. (2007). Group Think: The Law of Conspiracy and Collective Reason. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 98, No. 1, pp. 147-206. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/facpub/437
Ohlin, J. D. (2007b). Three Conceptual Problems with the Doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterprise, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 5, pp. 69-90. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mql1044
Perkins, R. M. (1941). Parties to Crime Author(s). University of Pennsylvania Law Reviewand American Law Register, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 581-623. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9136&context=penn_law_review
Posner, R. A. (1985). An Economic Theory of Criminal Law. Columbia Law Review, Vol. 85, No. 6, pp. 1193-1231. Recuperado de: https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2827&context=journal_articles
Recent Decisions (1947). Criminal Law - Conspiracy and Substantive Offenses-Distinctions Between Conspirators and Accomplices-Conviction of Conspirators for Substantive Offenses, Although He Did Not Actually Participate in Them, FordhamLaw Review, Vol. 16, pp. 275-282. Recuperado de: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol16/iss2/6
Robinson P., Dubber, M. (2007). The American Model Penal Code: A Brief Overview. New Criminal LawReview , Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 319-341. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2007.10.3.319
Robinson P. (1997). Structure and Function in Criminal Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Robinson P. (1984). Imputed Criminal Liability. Yale Law Journal, Vol. 93, pp. 609-676. Recuperado de: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2500452
Sayre, F. B. (Sr.) (1932). Mens Rea. HarvardLaw Review, Vol. 45, No. 6, pp. 974-1026. Recuperado de: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1332142
Sayre, F. B. (Sr.) (1930). Criminal Responsibility for the Acts of Another. Harvard Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 689-723. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1330727
Schuessler, T. (1983). Liability for Coconspirator 's Crimes in the Wisconsin Party to a Crime Statute. Marquette Law Review, vol. 66, pp. 345-368. Recuperado de: https://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1972&context=mulr
Sayre, F. B. (Sr.) (1922). Criminal Conspiracy. Harvard Law Review, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 393-427. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1328648
Schünemann, B. (1984). Einführung in das strafrechtliche Systemdenken. Schünemann, B., et al. (Eds.), Grundfragen des modernen Strafrechtssystems, Berlin-New York: De Gruyter, pp. 1-68.
Turner, J. W. C. (1936). The Mental Element in Crimes at Common Law. The Cambridge Law Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 31-66. Recuperado de: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4502876
Welzel H. (1964). Vom Bleibenden und vom Vergänglichen in der Strafrechtswissenschaft, Marburg a. d. Lahn: Elwert.
Weschler, H. (1962). On Culpability and Crime: The Treatment of Mens Rea in the Model Penal Code. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 339, pp. 24-41. Recuperado de: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1034317?seq=1
Willson, W. (2017). Criminal Law, 5a edición, Harlow: Pearson.
Yale L. J. (1947). Vicarious Liability for Criminal Offenses of Co-Conspirators. The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 56, No. 2 (Jan., 1947), pp. 371-378.
Sentencias Judiciales
Sentencias de tribunales norteamericanos
American Tabacco Co. v. United States, 328 U.S. 781 (1946).https://www.jstor.org/stable/1034317?seq=1
Bates v. United States, 323 U.S. 15 (1944).
Blumenthal v. United States, 332 U.S. 539 (1947).
Bollenbach v. United States, 326 U.S. 607 (1946).
Braverman v. United States, 317 U.S. 49 (1942).
Callanan v. United States, 364 U.S. 587 (1961).
Garland v. State, 112 Md. 83, 75. A. 631 (1910).
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, (2006).
Hyde & Schneider v. United States, 225 U.S. 347 (1912).
Krulewitch v. United States, 336 U.S. 440 (1949).
Morrisey v. State, 620 A.2d 207 (Del. 1993
People v. Gem Hang, 131 Cal.App.2d 69 (1955).
People v. Hines, 29 N.E.2d 483 (N.Y. 1940).
People v. McGee, 49 N.Y.2d 48 (1979).
Pinkerton v. United States, 328 U.S. 640 (1946).
Poliafico v. United States, 237 F.2d 97, 116 (6th Cir. 1956).
Sneed v. United States, 298 Fed. 911 (C.C.A. 5th, 1924)
State v. Miller, 677 P.2d 1129 (Utah 1984).
State v. Nevarez, 142 Idaho 616 (App.2005).
State v. Powel, 83 S.E. 310 (N.C. 1914).
State v. Stein, 94 Wash.App. 616 (1999).
State v. Stewart, 663, N.W.2d. 281 (Minn. 2002).
State v. Thibodeau, 353 A.2d 595 (Me.1976).
State v. Williams, 916 A.2d 294 (Md. 2007).
State ex rel. Woods v. Cohen, 173 Ariz. 497 (1992).
Thompson v. State, 106. Ala. 67, 17 So. 512 (1895).
United States v. Álvarez, 755 F.2d 830 (11th Cir.1985).
United States v. Britton, 10S U.S. 199, 204 (1883).
United States v. Castaneda, 9 F.3d 761 (9th Cir.1993).
United States v. Frazier, 880 F.2d 878 (6th Cir. 1989).
United States v. Gonzales, 121 F.3d 928 (5th Cir. 1997).
United States v. Hernandez-Orellana, 539 F.3d 994 (9th Cir. 2008).
United States v. Martinez, 900 F.3d 721 (5th Cir. 2018).
United States v. Ibarra-Zelaya, 465 F.3d 596 (5th Cir. 2006).
United States v. Raffone, 693 F2d 1343, 1346 (11th Cir. 1982).
United States v. Rosado-Fernandez, 614 F.2d 50, 53 (5th Cir. 1980).
United States v. Sail, 116 F. (2d) 745 (C. C. A. 3d, 1940).
United States v. Sall, 116 F.2d 745, (3d Cir. 1940).
United States v. Superior Growers Supply, 982 F.2d 173 (6th Cir. 1992).
United States v. Wilner, 523 F.2d 68 (2d Cir. 1975).
Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298 (1957).
State v. Williams, 397 Md. 172, 916 A .2d 294 (Md. 2007).
Sentencias de tribunales ingleses
Regina v. John Eagleton 169 Eng. Rep. 826 (Crim. App. 1855).
Regina v. Saunders, 2 Plowd 473 (1573).
Regina v. Tolson, 23 Q.B.D. 168 (1889).
Rex v. Huggins. King’s Bench 92 Eng. Rep. 518 (1730).
Sentencias de tribunales internacionales
Prosecutor v. Stakic, (IT-97-24-A, Sentencia de Apelaciones del TPIY, 22/03/2002).
Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, (IT-94-1-A, Sentencia de Apelaciones del ICTY, 15/07/1999).
Published
2022-04-07
How to Cite
Cordini, N. S. (2022). Conspiracy, Accomplice and Pinkerton Liability: Where does criminal responsibility end? A study on the U.S. Criminal Liability System. Revista De La Facultad De Derecho, (53), e20225301. https://doi.org/10.22187/rfd2022n53a1
Issue
Section
Doctrine
Copyright (c) 2022 Nicolás S. Cordini
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Revista de la Facultad de Derecho. Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional License.
